With a time-honored history, Chinese calligraphy falls into five schools: seal script, official script, regular script, running script and cursive script, each having its own characteristics and aesthetic beauty.

Seal Script


Greater Seal Script



Zhuanshu Calligraphy by Li Si

Zhouwen is also called Dazhuan (greater seal script). Shuo Wen Jie Zi (Elucidations of the Signs and Explications of the Graphs), compiled by Xu Shen, included more than 220 Zhouwen characters. Modern scholar Wang Guowei thought that these characters featured balanced left and right parts and a bit complicated structures.

Shiguwen is the representative of Dazhuan. During the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, ten stone tablets were found in Tianxing County (present-day Fengxiang County in Shaanxi Province). Textual researches show that these stone tablets were from the late years of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC) and the early years of the Warring States Period (475-221BC). Shiguwen on these tablets were all poems paying tributes to Emperor Qinshihuang.

Three stones carved with inscriptions were discovered in the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), and contents were all malediction from the King of the Qin State to the King of the Chu State. People in the later generations called these inscriptions as Zhouchuwen (Script of Malediction to Chu). Zhouwen, Shiguwen, Zhouchuwen and part of inscriptions on bronze in the Qin State all belonged to the same style and are collectively called as Zhouwen or Dazhuan. Zhouwen, characterized by shapely strokes and compact structures, was officially prescribed standard script of that time and had been used for a long period.




Lesser Seal Script


Xiaozhuan (lesser seal script), also called Qinzhuan, is a calligraphy developed from Dazhuan (greater seal script). It emerged in the Qin State in the late Warring States Period (475-221BC), and was prevalent in the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC) and early Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD).

Cultural relics of the Qin Dynasty unearthed show that Xiaozhuan was an evolvement from Dazhuan, and there is no distinct demarcation in time between the two. Some characters of Dazhuan were comparatively complicated and difficult to write, but became more simplified starting from the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC), when the process of simplification obviously picked up. Persons like Li Si, the Minister of Qinshihuang, collected and arranged the characters of Xiaozhuan, making it standard characters and popular in society.

Masterpieces of Xiaozhuan of this period include Taishan Keshi (stone inscription on the Mount Tai) and Langyatai Keshi (stone inscription on Langya Terrace). Elucidations of the Signs and Explications of the Graphs, compiled by Xu Shen, included 9,353 Xiaozhuan characters.

Though Xiaozhuan did not emerge until a long time after characters came into existence, it boasts a large number and played a special role in the development of Chinese characters, acting as the bridge between ancient characters and modern characters.


Representative: Li Si



Official Script



Lishu Calligraphy by Cai Yong

Lishu (official script) is developed from wild writing of Liuwen, a kind of calligraphy with round shape and many strokes. Because writing in Liuwen is time-consuming, people tended to write a bit more wildly and changed orderly arced strokes into relatively flat and straight in informal occasions. Lishu came into being in the Qin State of the late Warring States Period (475-221BC) and gradually became popular.

Lishu includes three types -- Qin Li of the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), Han Li of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and Bafen calligraphy. Qin Li refers to the simplified characters adopted for use during the reign of Qin Emperor Shihuang. By the Han Dynasty, the calligraphy in daily life was Lishu but its shape and handwriting got much development. Bafen calligraphy refers to the 80% style, which contracts the lesser seal calligraphy by a subtraction of 20%.

In fact, the simplified Chinese characters popular in the Qin Dynasty emerged before Qinshihuang unified the eight calligraphic styles. According to archeological findings, characters on some wooden plates and bamboo pieces from the Warring States Period and weapons, and lacquers and potteries from the Qin Dynasty were simpler than the Zhuanshu (seal script). The shape of the Chinese characters changed from round to square and the strokes tend to be wave-shaped. This was the beginning of Lishu.

The emergence of Lishu is an important reform in Chinese calligraphy, calling an end to the 3,000-year history of archaic Chinese characters and replacing them with a simpler writing form. Signs and designs almost disappeared, and characters became solely symbols.


Representative: Cai Yong






Regular Script



Kaishu Calligraphy by Yan Zhenqing
Though Kaishu (regular script) developed to a certain level in the Jin Dynasty (265-420), calligraphic works of that period still bore traces of Lishu. The Longzang Temple Tablet and the Epitaph of the Tomb of Beautiful Lady Dong show that Kaishu had developed to a mature stage during the Sui Dynasty (581-618). But it did not achieve its zenith until the Tang Dynasty (618-907).

Kaishu is regular with a tight structure and fluent strokes. Calligraphers in the history produced many masterpieces that have been handed down. Ouyang Xun, Liu Gongquan, Yan Zhenqin and Zhao Meng developed Kaishu to its peak with their unique styles, and they were called Four Masters of Kaishu .

Since Kaishu is easier to write and recognize than Lishu, it had taken the place of the latter and became a general font ever since the Wei and Jin dynasties. During the Song Dynasty, the development of typography helped create Songti - a special kind of calligraphy based on Kaishu. Nowadays, calligraphy schools such as Songti, Fangsongti, Heiti and so on, which are for typeset in computer and other printed materials, are all different applications of Kaishu .


Representative:   Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing, Liu Gongquan





Cursive Hand


Caoshu (cursive hand) is characterized by sketchy, simplified forms of characters, often distorted or exaggerated to achieve an internal rhythmic appearance within the compositions of characters. In theory, any character can be written in the style of Caoshu , for instance many characters appeared in inscriptions on bronze wares. However, Caoshu in literature refers to a specific style developed from Qin Li (official script in the Qin Dynasty), formed around the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD) and prevalent in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220).

Historical records show that Caoshu came into being in the pre-Qin period due to the fact that the fierce competition among various states made them often keep alert of any move of other states, which put a high demand on the communication

Caoshu in the early period retained much feature of Lishu and was called Zhangcao (a coarse style formed by breaking up the forms of Lishu). From the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) to the Wei (220-265) and Jin (265-420) dynasties, Caoshu got rid of the trace of Lishu strokes, and employed a large number of running strokes, and was called Jincao (the modern cursive hand). By the Tang Dynasty (618-907), Caoshu developed further, was written in a lively and vigorous way and was called Kuangcao (crazy cursive hand).

As Caoshu uses lots of running strokes and only has the outline of Chinese characters, it is illegible to most readers, which influenced its function of communication. Therefore, though Caoshu came into being comparatively early, it didn't become in written form within a state, while Zhuanshu (seal script) and Lishu (official script) could not be written hastily, hence Caoshu emerged, one of the calligraphies in general use. However, it has been always loved by many people. Famous Caoshu calligraphers include Zhang Zhi, Zhang Xu, Huai Su and so on.


Representative: Zhang Xu





Running Hand


Xingshu (running hand or semi-cursive script) was something between Lishu (the regular script) and Caoshu (the cursive scripts) in the initial period and now is between Kaishu (the standard script) and Caoshu. No matter which type, when carefully written with distinguishable strokes, the Xingshu characters will be very close to the regular style; when swiftly executed, they will approach the Caoshu. Chinese masters have always compared with vivid aptness the three styles of writing -- Kaishu, Xingshu and Caoshu -- to people standing, walking and running.

Xingshu is a looser writing style than regular style created by Liu Desheng in the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). At the very beginning, it was called Xingya, and later on became an independent form.

Xingshu is considered more abstract and artistic. Writing Xingshu characters is done more quickly than Kaishu but executed with no less care. Xingshu is not as messy as Caoshu, nor as neat as Kaishu . But it is convenient and highly practical for writing.

Masterpieces of Xingshu include Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection by Wang Xizhi, which was reputed as No.1 Xingshu Work. Unfortunately, the original was not handed down, and the one we see today is only a copy of the original work. Due to the high level of the copier, the copy retains the beautiful, neat style.

Famous Xingshu calligraphers included Cai Xiang, Su Dongpo, Huang Tingjian and Mi Fu in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), who were called Four Masters of the Song Dynasty. In the Ming (1368-1644)) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties and modern times, many calligraphers good at Xingshu came into being.

Representatives: Wang Xizhi, Wang Xianzhi, Four Calligraphy Master of the Song Dynasty